छत्तीसगढ़ का कश्मीर-चैतुरगढ़

 

छत्तीसगढ़ का कश्मीर-चैतुरगढ़

Why so?

छत्तीसगढ़ का यह प्रसिद्ध स्थान मैकाल पर्वत श्रेणी में स्थित है. समुद्र के तल से इसकी ऊँचाई लगभग 3060 फीट है. यह मैकाल पर्वत श्रेणी की उच्चतम चोटियों में से एक है.चैतुरगढ़ का क्षेत्र अलौकिक गुप्त गुफ़ा, झरना, नदी, जलाशय, दिव्य जड़ी-बूटी तथा औषधीय वृक्षों से परिपूर्ण है. ग्रीष्म ऋतु में भी यहाँ का तापमान 30 डिग्री सेन्टीग्रेट से अधिक नहीं होता। इसीलिए इसे ‘छत्तीसगढ़ का कश्मीर’ कहा जाता है। अनुपम छटाओं से युक्त यह क्षेत्र अत्यन्त दुर्गम भी है.

Location: Situated 70 Kms from Korba in Lush green Forest area.बिलासपुर-कोरबा मार्ग पर 50 किलोमीटर दूर ऐतिहासिक जगह पाली है, जहाँ से लगभग 125 किलोमीटर की दूरी पर लाफा है। लाफा से चैतुरगढ़ 30 किलोमीटर दूर ऊँचाई पर स्थित है. चैतुरगढ़ को “छत्तीसगढ़ का कश्मीर” भी कहा जाता है.

Altitude: समुद्र के तल से इसकी ऊँचाई लगभग 3060 फीट है

छत्तीसगढ़ का यह प्रसिद्ध स्थान मैकाल पर्वत श्रेणी में स्थित है. 

श्रृंगी झरना इस पर्वत श्रृंखला में स्थित है. जटाशंकरी नदी के तट पर ‘तुम्माण खोल’ नामक प्राचीन स्थान है, जो कि कलचुरी राजाओं की प्रथम राजधानी थी।इस पर्वत श्रृंखला में ही जटाशंकरी नदी का उद्गम स्थल है। दूर्गम पहाड़ी पर स्थित होने की वजह से कई वर्षों तक चैतुरगढ़ उपेक्षित रहा.

चैतुरगढ़ क़िला

सातवीं शताब्दी में वाण वंशीय राजा मल्लदेव ने महिषासुर मर्दिनी मंदिर का जीर्णोद्धार करवाया था। इसके बाद जाज्वल्बदेव ने भी 1100 ई. काल में यहाँ स्थित मंदिर और चैतुरगढ़ क़िले का जीर्णोद्धार करवाया। 

It is known to be One of the Garh out of 36 Garh/Killa of Chhattisgarh.

As per Archeologist , it is included in Natural Fort. Built by Kalchuri King Prithvidev I.

Mainly surrounded by Lush Green Hill side walls, Some place have high rise constructed Walls ,क़िले के चार द्वार बताये जाते हैं with main entrances named as Menka, Humkara, Singha Dwar, जिसमें सिंहद्वार के पास महामाया महिषासुर मर्दिनी का मंदिर है तो मेनका द्वार के पास है ‘शंकर खोल गुफ़ा’। On Hill Top there is area of 5 Sq. m on which there is a famous Temple महिषासुर मर्दिनी का मंदिर, there are five ponds  out of which three ponds have waters, Idol of Mata Mahisasur Mardini inside the Garbhagriha of Temple and 12 Elephant Idols are there. Famous Fair or Mela is organized every Navaratri Season.

3 kms from temple is शंकर खोल गुफ़ा is 25 feet Tunnel like cave present with narrow enclosures inside it.मंदिर से तीन किलोमीटर दूर ‘शंकर खोल गुफ़ा’ का प्रवेश द्वार बेहद छोटा है और एक समय में एक ही व्यक्ति लेटकर जा सकता है। गुफ़ा के अंदर शिवलिंग स्थापित है। यह कहा जाता है कि पर्वत के दक्षिण दिशा में क़िले का गुप्त द्वार है, जो अगम्य है.

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Disclaimer:  साइट पर सामग्री केवल शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों के लिए है और यह पेशेवर सलाह नहीं है।

Educational Purpose Only: The information provided on this blog is for general informational and educational purposes only. All content, including text, graphics, images, and other material contained on this blog, is intended to be a resource for learning and should not be considered as professional advice.

No Professional Advice: The content on this blog does not constitute professional advice, and you should not rely on it as a substitute for professional consultation, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a qualified professional with any questions you may have regarding a specific issue.

Accuracy of Information: While I strive to provide accurate and up-to-date information, I make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability, or availability with respect to the blog or the information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the blog for any purpose. Any reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk.

External Links: This blog may contain links to external websites that are not provided or maintained by or in any way affiliated with me. Please note that I do not guarantee the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of any information on these external websites.

Personal Responsibility: Readers of this blog are encouraged to do their own research and consult with a professional before making any decisions based on the information provided. I am not responsible for any loss, injury, or damage that may result from the use of the information contained on this blog.

Contact: If you have any questions or concerns regarding this disclaimer, please feel free to contact me at my email: pradeep14335@gmail.com

Crocodiles in Chhattisgarh, INDIA

 

17 जून को वर्ल्ड क्रोकोडाइल डे

India’s three main species of crocodilians. 

1. The Estuarine or saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) : It is the largest living reptile on earth. 

2. The mugger or marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris): Mugger or ‘makara’ in Hindu mythology is the vehicle of the river goddesses Ganga and Narmada.

3. The gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).

This family consists of 24 species and includes ‘true crocodiles’, alligators, caiman and the gharial.

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Saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus):

The saltwater crocodile is found in only three locations in the country today: Bhitarkanika, the Sundarbans and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus): 

The Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus) is a critically endangered crocodilian that had an original range in the river systems of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and southern parts of Bhutan and Nepal.

Places: Gandak River, Bihar, India: वर्ल्ड वाइल्ड लाइफ के अधिकारी ने बताया कि गंडक नदी किनारे नौ जगहों पर घड़ियाल के अंडे पाए गए, जिसमें 8 स्थानों पर बिहार में अंडे मिले और एक यूपी के कुशीनगर क्षेत्र में. जिसके बाद किसानों के सहयोग से उसका संरक्षण किया गया (Year : 2023).

Valmiki Tiger Reserve, VTR comprises the Valmiki National Park and Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary. 

Boundaries: It is surrounded by the Royal Chitwan National Park of Nepal in the north and the river Gandak on the western side.

Location: It is located at the India-Nepal border in the West Champaran district of Bihar on the bank of river Gandak.

दरअसल इस वर्ष 2023 में गंडक नदी किनारे घड़ियालों के 9 घोंसले मिले थे, बगहा के धनहा-रतवल पुल के समीप घड़ियाल के अंडों के 5 घोंसले पाए गए थे, जिसमें से 4 घोसलों से 127 बच्चों का प्रजनन कराया गया. वहीं पहली मर्तबा बिहार के बगहा सीमा से सटे उत्तरप्रदेश के सोहगी बरवा के साधु घाट पर एक घोंसला पाया गया था जिसमें से 33 बच्चे निकले. एक घोंसला से अभी प्रजनन नहीं कराया गया है.

''यूपी के सोहगी बरवा में घड़ियाल के अंडों का जो घोंसला पाया गया है, वह मादा घड़ियाल नेपाल द्वारा छोड़ा गया था लेकिन माइग्रेट कर के वह बिहार यूपी सीमा पर चला आया है. ऐसे में माना जा रहा है कि गंडक नदी की आबोहवा घड़ियालों को खूब भा रहा है.''-  वाइल्ड लाइफ ट्रस्ट ऑफ इंडिया

घड़ियालों की संख्या के मामले में गंडक नदी का दूसरा स्थान: 

गौरतलब है कि 2016 में भारतीय प्रजाति के घड़ियालों का सर्वे हुआ था, जिसमें गंडक नदी में केवल एक दर्जन ही घड़ियाल मिले थे. जबकि अब इनकी संख्या तकरीबन 500 के आसपास हो गई है. तभी इनके बढ़ती संख्या को देखते हुए संवर्धन (पालन-पोषण ) के लिए सरकार ने कई प्रयास किए हैं. ऐसे में संख्या के लिहाज से देखा जाए तो भारत में चंबल नदी के बाद सबसे ज्यादा घड़ियालों की संख्या गंडक नदी में ही है.

Above Gandak River News source: https://www.etvbharat.com/hindi/delhi/bharat/125-gharial-babies-safely-released-into-gandak-river-in-bihar-bagaha/na20230617141759220220390

Mugger or marsh crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) in Chhattisgarh: 

1. प्रदेश के जांजगीर चांपा जिले की अकलतरा क्षेत्र के कोटमीसोनार गांव, Mugger crocodiles in Kotmi Sonar, Chhattisgarh, कोटमीसोनार गांव में क्रोकोडाईल पार्क स्थापित है।

साल 2006 में बनाया गया क्रोकोडाइल पार्क,कोटमीसोना गांव के ज्यादातर तालाबों में पहले मगरमच्छों का अवास था। कई बार लोगों का आमना-सामना भी नहाने के दौरान मगरमछ़ों से हो जाता था। साल 2006 में सरकार ने यहां के तालाबों में बढ़ते मगरमच्छों की संख्या को देखते हुए क्रोकोडाइल पार्क स्थापित किया। अब वहां करीब 400 मगरमच्छ स्वतंत्र रूप से विचरण करते हैं। यह भी बताया जाता है कि चेन्नई के बाद देश का दूसरा सबसे बड़ा क्रोकोडाइल पार्क है।

About Kotmi Sonar: 

Kotmi Sonar is a Village in Akaltara Tehsil in Janjgir-champa District of Chattisgarh State, India. It is located 56 KM towards west from District head quarters Janjgir, 9 KM from Akaltari, 133 KM from State capital Raipur

2. कांगेर घाटी राष्ट्रीय उद्यान: पार्क प्रबंधन के मुताबिक कांगेर नदी में 12 ऐसे प्वाइंट हैं जहां ये मगरमच्छ ज्यादा संख्या में पाए जाते हैं.

बस्तर में बहने वाला कांगेर नदी जिसे कुछ लोग विशाल नाला भी कहते हैं ये करीब 15 किलोमीटर लंबा है. कांगेर नदी कांगेर घाटी राष्ट्रीय उद्यान के बीच होकर निकलती है. करीब 15 किलोमीटर तक सीधी बहने के बाद ये नदी शबरी नदी में जाकर मिल जाती है. कांगेर नदी का पानी शबरी नदी में मिलता है और शबरी नदी का पानी 130 किलोमीटर बहने के बाद जाकर गोदावरी नदी में मिलता है.

Park includes Bhainsa Darha lake has crocodiles.

3. इंद्रावती नदी एवं विभिन्न नालों में मिलने वाले मगरमच्छ को कांगेर नदी में छोड़ा जा रहा है

4. छत्तीसगढ़ के रतनपुर के भीखमा तालाब @News Reports

5. पाली विखं का दक्षिण पश्चिमी हिस्सा खुटाघाट बांध से जुड़े हुए हैं खुटाघाट बांध में पाली विकासखंड के नदी नालों से पानी जाता है खुटाघाट बांध में बड़ी संख्या में मगरमच्छ है जो इन्हीं नदी नालों के सहारे कई बार यहां के आवासीय परिक्षेत्र तक पहुंच जाते हैं। @News Reports

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Disclaimer:  साइट पर सामग्री केवल शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों के लिए है और यह पेशेवर सलाह नहीं है।

Educational Purpose Only: The information provided on this blog is for general informational and educational purposes only. All content, including text, graphics, images, and other material contained on this blog, is intended to be a resource for learning and should not be considered as professional advice.

No Professional Advice: The content on this blog does not constitute professional advice, and you should not rely on it as a substitute for professional consultation, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a qualified professional with any questions you may have regarding a specific issue.

Accuracy of Information: While I strive to provide accurate and up-to-date information, I make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability, or availability with respect to the blog or the information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the blog for any purpose. Any reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk.

External Links: This blog may contain links to external websites that are not provided or maintained by or in any way affiliated with me. Please note that I do not guarantee the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of any information on these external websites.

Personal Responsibility: Readers of this blog are encouraged to do their own research and consult with a professional before making any decisions based on the information provided. I am not responsible for any loss, injury, or damage that may result from the use of the information contained on this blog.

Contact: If you have any questions or concerns regarding this disclaimer, please feel free to contact me at my email: pradeep14335@gmail.com

Kanger Valley National Park, Bastar , Chhattisgarh, India

Kanger Valley National Park, located in the Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, India, is known for its diverse flora and fauna, scenic landscapes, and unique geological formations. Here are some key highlights about the park:

Area: 200 Sq. Km

1. Biodiversity

• Flora: The park is home to a variety of vegetation types, including tropical evergreen forests, moist deciduous forests, and mixed forests. Notable tree species include Sal, teak, and bamboo.
• Fauna: The park hosts a rich array of wildlife, such as tigers, leopards, deer (including the chital and sambar), wild boar, and numerous bird species like the hill myna(Bastar Myna), which is the state bird of Chhattisgarh. Eastern side of the park is Bhiansdarha, place with natural Habitat of Crocodile.

2. Geological Significance

• Caves: Kanger Valley National Park is renowned for its limestone caves, including the famous Kutumsar Cave( Discoverer Dr. Shankar Tiwari), Dandak Cave, and Kailash Gufa, These caves are known for their stunning stalactite and stalagmite formations. Others include Mandarkonta Caves, Sheett Gufa, Devgiri Caves. 
• Kanger River: The park is named after the Kanger River, which flows through it, contributing to the region's lush greenery and supporting diverse ecosystems.

3. Waterfalls

• Tirathgarh Waterfalls: On Mungabahar River, Tributary of River Kanger One of the prominent attractions within the park, these falls are characterized by their multi-tiered cascades and are a popular spot for tourists.

4. Tourist Activities

• River Rafting and kayaking: At Place Dhudmaraas, Home stay, Bastariya Tribal Culture and cuisines, Bastar Tribal Huts are there for tourists to explore.
• Trekking and Nature Walks: The park offers various trekking routes and nature trails, allowing visitors to explore its natural beauty and wildlife.
• Cave Exploration: Guided tours are available for exploring the park's unique caves.
• Bird Watching: With its rich avian diversity, the park is a haven for bird watchers.

5. Conservation Efforts

• The park is involved in various conservation activities aimed at protecting its unique ecosystems and endangered species. Efforts include anti-poaching measures and habitat restoration.

6. Accessibility and Accommodation

• Location: The park is approximately 27 kilometers S-E from Jagdalpur, the nearest city, Bastar Division, District Bastar, Chhattisgarh, Starts from Kamanaar Check Post on NH -30.
• Best Time to Visit: The ideal time to visit is between November and June when the weather is pleasant, and wildlife sightings are more frequent.
• Accommodation: There are several accommodation options available in and around Jagdalpur, ranging from budget lodges to more comfortable hotels.

Kanger Valley National Park is a treasure trove of natural beauty and biodiversity, offering a unique experience for nature enthusiasts, wildlife photographers, and adventure seekers.

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भारत के छत्तीसगढ़ के बस्तर जिले में स्थित कांगेर घाटी राष्ट्रीय उद्यान अपनी विविध वनस्पतियों और जीवों, प्राकृतिक परिदृश्यों और अद्वितीय भूवैज्ञानिक संरचनाओं के लिए जाना जाता है। यहां पार्क के बारे में कुछ मुख्य बातें दी गई हैं:

1. जैव विविधता

वनस्पति: पार्क विभिन्न प्रकार की वनस्पतियों का घर है, जिनमें उष्णकटिबंधीय सदाबहार वन, नम पर्णपाती वन और मिश्रित वन शामिल हैं। उल्लेखनीय वृक्ष प्रजातियों में साल, सागौन और बांस शामिल हैं।

जीव-जंतु: पार्क में वन्यजीवों की एक समृद्ध श्रृंखला मौजूद है, जैसे बाघ, तेंदुए, हिरण (चीतल और सांभर सहित), जंगली सूअर, और पहाड़ी मैना जैसी कई पक्षी प्रजातियां, जो छत्तीसगढ़ का राज्य पक्षी है।

2. भूवैज्ञानिक महत्व

गुफाएँ: कांगेर घाटी राष्ट्रीय उद्यान अपनी चूना पत्थर की गुफाओं के लिए प्रसिद्ध है, जिनमें प्रसिद्ध कुटुमसर गुफा, दंडक गुफा और कैलाश गुफा शामिल हैं। ये गुफाएँ अपने आश्चर्यजनक स्टैलेक्टाइट और स्टैलेग्माइट संरचनाओं के लिए जानी जाती हैं।

कांगेर नदी: पार्क का नाम कांगेर नदी के नाम पर रखा गया है, जो इसमें बहती है, जो क्षेत्र की हरी-भरी हरियाली में योगदान देती है और विविध पारिस्थितिक तंत्र का समर्थन करती है।

3. झरने

तीरथगढ़ झरने: पार्क के प्रमुख आकर्षणों में से एक, ये झरने अपने बहु-स्तरीय झरनों की विशेषता रखते हैं और पर्यटकों के लिए एक लोकप्रिय स्थान हैं।

4. पर्यटक गतिविधियाँ

ट्रैकिंग और प्रकृति की सैर: पार्क विभिन्न ट्रैकिंग मार्ग और प्रकृति पथ प्रदान करता है, जिससे आगंतुकों को इसकी प्राकृतिक सुंदरता और वन्य जीवन का पता लगाने की अनुमति मिलती है।

गुफा अन्वेषण: पार्क की अनूठी गुफाओं की खोज के लिए निर्देशित पर्यटन उपलब्ध हैं।

पक्षी अवलोकन: अपनी समृद्ध पक्षी विविधता के साथ, यह पार्क पक्षी प्रेमियों के लिए स्वर्ग है।

5. संरक्षण के प्रयास

पार्क अपने अद्वितीय पारिस्थितिक तंत्र और लुप्तप्राय प्रजातियों की रक्षा के उद्देश्य से विभिन्न संरक्षण गतिविधियों में शामिल है। प्रयासों में अवैध शिकार विरोधी उपाय और आवास बहाली शामिल हैं।

6. पहुंच और आवास

स्थान: पार्क निकटतम शहर जगदलपुर से लगभग 27 किलोमीटर दूर है।

घूमने का सबसे अच्छा समय: घूमने का आदर्श समय नवंबर और जून के बीच है जब मौसम सुहावना होता है और वन्यजीवों के दर्शन अक्सर होते हैं।

आवास: जगदलपुर और उसके आसपास कई आवास विकल्प उपलब्ध हैं, जिनमें बजट लॉज से लेकर अधिक आरामदायक होटल तक शामिल हैं।

कांगेर वैली नेशनल पार्क प्राकृतिक सुंदरता और जैव विविधता का खजाना है, जो प्रकृति प्रेमियों, वन्यजीव फोटोग्राफरों और साहसिक चाहने वालों के लिए एक अनूठा अनुभव प्रदान करता है।

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Disclaimer:  साइट पर सामग्री केवल शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों के लिए है और यह पेशेवर सलाह नहीं है।

Educational Purpose Only: The information provided on this blog is for general informational and educational purposes only. All content, including text, graphics, images, and other material contained on this blog, is intended to be a resource for learning and should not be considered as professional advice.

No Professional Advice: The content on this blog does not constitute professional advice, and you should not rely on it as a substitute for professional consultation, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a qualified professional with any questions you may have regarding a specific issue.

Accuracy of Information: While I strive to provide accurate and up-to-date information, I make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability, or availability with respect to the blog or the information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the blog for any purpose. Any reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk.

External Links: This blog may contain links to external websites that are not provided or maintained by or in any way affiliated with me. Please note that I do not guarantee the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of any information on these external websites.

Personal Responsibility: Readers of this blog are encouraged to do their own research and consult with a professional before making any decisions based on the information provided. I am not responsible for any loss, injury, or damage that may result from the use of the information contained on this blog.

Contact: If you have any questions or concerns regarding this disclaimer, please feel free to contact me at my email: pradeep14335@gmail.com

CSA UNIT 5 : Pipeline and Vector Processing

COMPUTER SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE 

UNIT 5

UNIT-V: Pipeline and Vector Processing: Parallel Processing. Pipelining. Arithmetic pipeline, Instruction Pipeline, RISC Pipeline, Vector Processing, Array Processors.

Text Books:

1. Computer System Architecture, M. Marris Mano, PHI 2. Computer Organization, VC Hamacher, ZG Vranesicand S.C.Zaky, McGraw Hill.

😎Please Go through the Introduction part to answer the Questions: 👉

Introduction to the Topics in Syllabus

• WHAT IS PARELLEL PROCESSING?
• Flynn’s  classification.
• WHAT IS PIPELING? 

INTRODUCTION:

WHAT IS PARELLEL PROCESSING?

Parallel processing is a method in computing of running two or more processors (CPUs) to handle separate parts of an overall task. 

Breaking up different parts of a task among multiple processors will help reduce the amount of time to run a program.

REFER FIGURE ABOVE, 

Let us understand the scenario with the help of a real-life example:

Consider the single-processor system as the one-man company. In a one-man company the owner takes a task finishes it and further takes another task to accomplish.

If the owner has to expand his business, he has to hire more people. Hiring more people will distribute the workload and allow him to finish the jobs faster. He will also be able to increase his capacity for doing jobs. Or we can say he will able to accept more jobs than earlier. This strategy is similar to parallel processing.

REFER FIGURE BELOW, As we discussed above parallel processing breaks the task or a process into sub-tasks and distribute these sub-tasks among all the available processors present in the system. Thereby, executing the task in the shortest time.

All the processors in the parallel processing environment should run on the same operating system. All processors here are tightly coupled and are packed in one casing. All the processors in the system share the common secondary storage like the hard disk. As this is the first place where the programs are to be placed.

Flynn has classified the computer systems based on parallelism in the Instructions and in the Data streams. 

Flynn’s taxonomy is a classification scheme for computer architectures proposed by Michael Flynn in 1966. The taxonomy is based on the number of instruction streams and data streams that can be processed simultaneously by a computer architecture. There are four categories in Flynn’s taxonomy:

These are:

1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD).

2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD).

3. Multiple instruction streams, single data stream (MISD).

4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD).

figure: Unit 5 Flynn classification:

PU: Processing Unit or CPU

WHAT IS PIPELING? 

To improve the performance of a CPU we have two options: 

1. Improve the hardware by introducing faster circuits. 

2. Arrange the hardware such that more than one operation can be performed at the same time. 

Since there is a limit on the speed of hardware and the cost of faster circuits is quite high, we have to adopt the 2nd option. 

Pipelining is a process of arrangement of hardware elements of the CPU such that its overall performance is increased. 

The pipeline is a "logical pipeline" that lets the processor perform an instruction in multiple steps. 

The processing happens in a continuous, orderly, somewhat overlapped manner.

Design of a basic pipeline

• In a pipelined processor, a pipeline has two ends, the input end and the output end. Between these ends, there are multiple stages/segments such that the output of one stage is connected to the input of the next stage and each stage performs a specific operation.
• Interface registers are used to hold the intermediate output between two stages. These interface registers are also called latch or buffer.
• All the stages in the pipeline along with the interface registers are controlled by a common clock.

Because the processor works on different steps of the instruction at the same time, more instructions can be executed in a shorter period of time.

A useful method of demonstrating this is the laundry analogy. Let's say that there are four loads of dirty laundry that need to be washed, dried, and folded. We could put the the first load in the washer for 30 minutes, dry it for 40 minutes, and then take 20 minutes to fold the clothes. Then pick up the second load and wash, dry, and fold, and repeat for the third and fourth loads. Supposing we started at 6 PM and worked as efficiently as possible, we would still be doing laundry until midnight.

However, a smarter approach to the problem would be to put the second load of dirty laundry into the washer after the first was already clean and whirling happily in the dryer. Then, while the first load was being folded, the second load would dry, and a third load could be added to the pipeline of laundry. Using this method, the laundry would be finished by 9:30.

Source: https://cs.stanford.edu/

A program consists of several number of instructions.

These instructions may be executed in the following two ways:

1. Non-Pipelined Execution
2. Pipelined Execution

For example, consider a processor having 5 stages and let there be 5 instructions to be executed. 

We can visualize the execution sequence through the following space-time diagrams.

The instruction is divided into 5 subtasks: instruction fetch, instruction decode, operand fetch, instruction execution and operand store.

1. Non-Pipelined Execution (Non-overlapped execution)-

 In non-pipelined architecture,

• All the instructions of a program are executed sequentially one after the other.
• A new instruction executes only after the previous instruction has executed completely.
• This style of executing the instructions is highly inefficient.

Consider a program consisting of Five instructions.

Execution sequence of instructions in a processor can be visualized using a space-time diagram.

2. Pipelined Execution (Overlapped execution): 

Execution in a pipelined processor

Pipeline Stages : 

Pipelining organizes the execution of the multiple instructions simultaneously.

In pipelining the instruction is divided into the subtasks. Each subtask performs the dedicated task.

Look at the figure below the 5 instructions are pipelined. 

The instruction is divided into 5 subtasks: instruction fetch, instruction decode, operand fetch, instruction execution and operand store.

(In some book it is 

5 stage pipeline:Fetch – Decode – Read – Execute - Write)

1. In the first subtask, the instruction is fetched.
2. The fetched instruction is decoded in the second stage.
3. In the third stage, the operands of the instruction are fetched.
4. In the fourth, arithmetic and logical operation are performed on the operands to execute the instruction.
5. In the fifth stage, the result is stored in memory.

Observe that when the Instruction fetch operation of the first instruction is completed in the next clock cycle the instruction fetch of second instruction gets started. This way the hardware never sits idle it is always busy in performing some or other operation. But, no two instructions can execute their same stage at the same clock cycle.

Types of Pipelining

In 1977 Handler and Ramamoorthy classified pipeline processors depending on their functionality.

1. Arithmetic Pipelining  (Also refer Question # 07 in the end of this Page)

It is designed to perform high-speed floating-point addition, multiplication and division. Here, the multiple arithmetic logic units are built in the system to perform the parallel arithmetic computation in various data format. Examples of the arithmetic pipelined processor are Star-100, TI-ASC, Cray-1, Cyber-205.

2. Instruction Pipelining  (Also refer Question # 05 in the end of this Page)

Here, the number of instruction are pipelined and the execution of current instruction is overlapped by the execution of the subsequent instruction. It is also called instruction lookahead.

3. Processor Pipelining

4. Uni function Vs. Multifunction Pipelining

5. Static vs Dynamic Pipelining

6. Scalar vs Vector Pipelining: 

Scalar pipelining processes the instructions with scalar operands. The vector pipeline processes the instruction with vector operands.

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👱 Asked in Previous year University Papers (COMPILED FROM UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS)

1. What do you understand by parallel processing? Describe Flynn's classification of parallel processing. 

Ans:

Click  for the Detailed Solution 👉 Flynn's Classification- 4 category

OR 

Short Answer: 

Prerequisite: Also see Notes Above in Flynn's section (above 👆 top of page). 

Flynn's Classification of Computers

M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system by the number of instructions and data items that are manipulated simultaneously.

The sequence of instructions read from memory constitutes an instruction stream.

The operations performed on the data in the processor constitute a data stream.

Flynn's classification divides computers into four major groups that are:

1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
3. Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)

P = Processing Unit

Figure Source: researchgate.net

2. What is the use of pipelining? 

Prove that an M- stage linear pipeline can be at most M times faster than that of non-pipelined serial processor.

Ans: Click  for the Detailed Solution 👉M Stage Solution

OR 

Short Answer: 

Consider a ‘M’ segment pipeline with clock cycle time as ‘Tp’. 

Let there be ‘n’ tasks to be completed in the pipelined processor. 

Now, the first instruction is going to take ‘M’ cycles to come out of the pipeline but the other ‘n – 1’ instructions will take only ‘1’ cycle each, i.e, a total of ‘n – 1’ cycles.

Each Cycle =  Tp

So, time taken to execute ‘n’ instructions in a pipelined processor:

 = (M)Tp + (n – 1) Tp = [M + (n – 1)] Tp ------------(1)

In the same case, for a non-pipelined processor, the execution time of ‘n’ instructions will be: ETnon-pipeline = n * M * Tp------------(2)

So, speedup (S) of the pipelined processor over the non-pipelined processor, when ‘n’ tasks are executed on the same processor is:
    S = Performance of non-pipelined processor /
        Performance of pipelined processor
As the performance of a processor is inversely proportional to the execution time, we have,
   S = ETnon-pipeline / ETpipeline                   =(1)/(2)
    => S =  [n * M * Tp] / [(M + n – 1) * Tp]
       S = [n * M] / [M + n – 1]
When the number of tasks ‘n’ is significantly larger than k, that is, n >> k
    S = n * M / n
    S = M
where ‘M’ are the number of stages in the pipeline

3. Specify a pipeline configuration to carry out Arithmetic Operation (Ai*Bi) + Ci

Ans:

Click  for the Detailed Solution 👉Ai*Bi +Ci

4. Specify a pipeline configuration to carry out Arithmetic Operation (Ai+Bi)*(Ci+Di).

Ans: Click  for the Detailed Solution 👉 (Ai+Bi )* (Ci+Di)

5. Draw and explain flow chart and timing diagram for the four segment instruction pipeline.

Ans: Click  for the Detailed Solution 👉4 Stage pipeline

OR 

Short Answer: 

In general, the computer needs to process each instruction with the following sequence of steps.

1. Fetch instruction from memory.
2. Decode the instruction.
3. Calculate the effective address.
4. Fetch the operands from memory.
5. Execute the instruction.
6. Store the result in the proper place.

Each step is executed in a particular segment.

• Example: four segment instruction pipeline

Flow chart: Figure | Four Segment Instruction Pipeline

The above figure shows operation of 4-segment instruction pipeline. The four segments are represented as

• FI: segment 1 that fetches the instruction.
• DA: segment 2 that decodes the instruction and calculates the effective address.
• FO: segment 3 that fetches the operands.
• EX: segment 4 that executes the instruction

Timing diagram: 

The space time diagram for the 4-segment instruction pipeline is given below:

6. Write short notes on

(i) Vector processor

(ii) Array processor

Ans: 

Computer Architecture- Advanced Architectures - SIMD Architectures 

Data parallelism: executing one operation on multiple data streams 

-Concurrency in time – vector processing 

-Concurrency in space – array processing

OR

Data parallelism in time = vector processing 

Data parallelism in space = array processing 

(i) Vector processor: Click  for the Detailed Solution 👉 vector processor

• Computers having vector instruction are vector processors.
  
  
  
  
  
  
  
• Vector processor have the vector instructions which operates on the large array of integer or floating-point numbers or logical values or characters, all elements in parallel. It is called vectorization.
• Vectorization is possible only if the operation performed in parallel are independent of each other.
• Operands of vector instruction are stored in the vector register. A vector register stores several data elements at a time which is called vector operand.
• A vector operand has several scalar data elements.
• A vector instruction needs to perform the same operation on the different data set. Hence, vector processors have a pipelined structure.
• Vector processing ignores the overhead caused due to the loops while operating on an array.

So, this is how vector processing allows parallel operation on the large arrays and fasten the processing speed.

(ii) Array processor

Ans: (i) Array processor: Click  for the Detailed Solution 👉 Array Processor

Types of Array Processor

There are two types of array processor like; attached and SIMD , See Detailed Notes.

7. What is Arithmetic pipeline. Explain Floating Point addition (using arithmetic pipeline) . 

Ans: Arithmetic Pipeline :

An arithmetic pipeline divides an arithmetic problem into various sub problems for execution in various pipeline segments. It is used for floating point operations, multiplication and various other computations. The process or flowchart arithmetic pipeline for floating point addition is shown in the diagram.

Floating point addition using arithmetic pipeline :
The following sub operations are performed in this case:

1. Compare the exponents.
2. Align the mantissas.
3. Add or subtract the mantissas.
4. Normalize the result

First of all the two exponents are compared and the larger of two exponents is chosen as the result exponent. The difference in the exponents then decides how many times we must shift the smaller exponent to the right. Then after shifting of exponent, both the mantissas get aligned. Finally the addition of both numbers take place followed by normalization of the result in the last segment.

Example:
Let us consider two numbers,

X=0.3214*10^3 and Y=0.4500*10^2 

Explanation:
First of all the two exponents are subtracted to give 3-2=1. Thus 3 becomes the exponent of result and the smaller exponent is shifted 1 times to the right to give

Y=0.0450*10^3 

Finally the two numbers are added to produce

Z=0.3664*10^3 

As the result is already normalized the result remains the same.

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Above SOLUTION prepared for  LAST MOMENT PREPARARTIONS.

Thank you

Pradeep Kumar

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Disclaimer:  साइट पर सामग्री केवल शैक्षिक उद्देश्यों के लिए है और यह पेशेवर सलाह नहीं है।

Educational Purpose Only: The information provided on this blog is for general informational and educational purposes only. All content, including text, graphics, images, and other material contained on this blog, is intended to be a resource for learning and should not be considered as professional advice.

No Professional Advice: The content on this blog does not constitute professional advice, and you should not rely on it as a substitute for professional consultation, diagnosis, or treatment. Always seek the advice of a qualified professional with any questions you may have regarding a specific issue.

Accuracy of Information: While I strive to provide accurate and up-to-date information, I make no representations or warranties of any kind, express or implied, about the completeness, accuracy, reliability, suitability, or availability with respect to the blog or the information, products, services, or related graphics contained on the blog for any purpose. Any reliance you place on such information is therefore strictly at your own risk.

External Links: This blog may contain links to external websites that are not provided or maintained by or in any way affiliated with me. Please note that I do not guarantee the accuracy, relevance, timeliness, or completeness of any information on these external websites.

Personal Responsibility: Readers of this blog are encouraged to do their own research and consult with a professional before making any decisions based on the information provided. I am not responsible for any loss, injury, or damage that may result from the use of the information contained on this blog.

Contact: If you have any questions or concerns regarding this disclaimer, please feel free to contact me at my email: pradeep14335@gmail.com